Post Conflict Reconstruction and the Resurgence of Supposedly Resolved Territorial Conflicts Essay

Beyond the rhetoric of traditional causes of conflicts which intermittently are also at the root cause of African territorial civil conflicts, this paper examines the question as to why conflict resurges in states where conflict has previously been resolved. From the perspective of two major theoretical frameworks in International Relations: Liberalism and Realism, this paper argues that mechanisms for conflict resolution are often short-termed and often not home-groomed to accommodate the needs of citizens emanating from a civil war. Liberals argue that this is primarily a failure of cooperation between external and internal actors or stakeholders in the peace process. To them, this lack of cooperation generates economic problems and inhibits mistrust which is the embryo for conflict resurgence. In contrast conflict resolution fails primarily as a result of factors emphasized by Realism. The conflict may not have been ripe for resolution because the practical meaning of recognition revealed large gaps between the ways that the parties defined their core interests. Against this background and given the depth of antagonism between the DRC government and MONUC on the one hand and rebel movements on the other, economic wealth of the Congo has failed to generate support for the peace process. Instead, it increased friction and placed additional political obstacles in the way of compromise. The paper also examines the potency of peacekeeping as a vehicle for conflict resolution. It argues that the design and conceptualization of peacekeeping albeit structural challenges like inadequate resources, ill-equipped personnel and lack of a clearly defined and sustainable vision are at the bedrock of cyclical conflicts. In examining the role of MONUC and other interveners in the Congolese peace process, the paper engages a conceptual thesis which seeks to clarify the difference between peacekeeping as a mediator, meddler and interventionist in African civil conflicts. This clarification will inform conceptual thinking on the potency of peacekeeping as a vehicle for the resolution of civil conflicts. The conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is one demonstration of the fragile nature of post conflict reconstruction and speaks to the need to step-up conflict prevention strategies to meet current challenges which have given rise to new trajectories to territorial conflicts in Africa. Despite deploying a Peace Mission to the Congo (ONUC)[1] in the 1960s, and despite currently harboring the largest and highest funded United Nations Peace Operation (MONUC);[2] the United Nations (UN) is still finding it difficult to bring an end to the territorial conflict in what is regarded as the site for the world’s worst humanitarian conflict. The conflict, therefore, seems to protract with each renewed effort to resolve it. Following field visits, extensive reading on the Congo and interviews with conflict analysts and residents of the DRC, this paper assesses the viability of peacekeeping as a measure for preventing the resurgence of new territorial conflict. While most interviewed are of the view that the challenges of the DRC peace process are enormous and complex, this paper interrogates the role of MONUC as a conflict prevention mechanism, and its effectiveness in sustainable peacebuilding in the Great Lakes region. The paper enriches conceptual thinking with the view that peacekeeping as a form of external intervention has the capacity to support fragile states in their peace building process, and to check prospective territorial conflicts if certain requirements are met. Preliminary investigations indicate that, contrary to previous research which posited political, natural resource and cultural underpinnings as causes of the current DRC conflict, the lack of a clearly defined plan to stop hostilities in the East can largely be accountable for the cyclical violence. Contrary to expectation that following the 2006 DRC election, the fragile Congolese state had attained sovereign maturity to govern itself with limited external support, this paper posits the need for dedicated and timely funding to a new mediator who will engage a five-phased peacebuilding process which will re-orientate existent theoretical and pragmatic processes of conflict prevention, and define succinctly, through policy recommendations, a new direction for the prevention of territorial conflicts. Following this introduction, the next section will explore the causes of territorial conflicts in Africa and elsewhere. This section engages a brief differentiation between causes of conflicts and causes of conflict resurgence with the view of demonstrating that if one cannot prima facie understand the causes of conflict, its resolution attempts will be flawed and such attempts will serve as the corner stone on which prospective conflicts will be erected. Section two will engage a theoretical overview of causes of conflict resurgence. This section will examine causes of conflict resurgence as propounded by two main schools of thought of International Relations: Realism and Liberalism. Following this, tools of conflict resolution will reviewed with principal focus on peacekeeping. The Section will trickle down to a case specific analysis of whether peacekeeping as a tool for conflict resolution is a byproduct of intervention or mediation, and whether in the exercise of their craft, peacekeepers qualify to be called mediators or would be considered meddlers. This section argues that, between 1999 to 2006 when the first democratic election in the Congo was organized, MONUC could well be considered as a mediator, but following that period, MONUC till date (July 2006 to 2010) she is a meddler in the peace process which is largely driven by the rapprochement that was reached between the DRC and Uganda on the one hand, and the DRC and Rwanda on the other. Causes of territorial Conflicts in Africa There are contending theories as to the causes of territorial conflicts. Conflicts seem to have a litany of literature compared to other subsidiary topics of International Affairs and African studies. Scholars have thus far not been able to see the divide between causes of territorial conflicts and conflicts which ensue from the impotency of mechanisms tailored to resolve them. As a result, there is no dearth of literature on the causes of conflicts but one hardly finds any one who has contended that an ineffective resolution strategy could spark new trajectories to conflict. Existing literature on causes of conflict is sometimes limited in scope to address on causes in particular. Adekeye Adebajo has articulated political and cultural underpinnings to be responsible for conflicts. 3] This could hold true for the Sierra Leone conflict but in the face of global adversities, his speculations stand to be criticized because other conflicts like the Rwandan genocide emanate from imbalances in the distribution of economic, political and social resources. Moreover, the ongoing Sudanese conflicts have religious/and or ethnic undertones with no element of cultural or political formulations which equally go along way to excavate the lacunae in Adekeye’s speculations. Paul Collier holds the view that conflicts are fuelled by economic considerations. He posits that most rebel organizations cling onto the idea of grievances in order to elicit more public support for their cause. In his hypothesis, he contemplates that a state with superfluous resources, increasing working-age population, and high unemployment rate is most likely to harbor conflict. His hypothesis, though true for many conflicts that have plagued Africa does not explain other cases in Africa. For instance, former British trusteeship of Cameroon fondly known as Anglophone Cameroon has been wailing for a fair share of economic, political, social and natural resources of the country. Despite this, discontentment has not resulted to war or any from of concrete violence as has occurred in other countries. This phenomenon consequently makes Collier’s assertions fluid. Summarily, Collier, Eboe Hutchful and Kwesi Aning argue that there are countries that have experienced conflict where natural resources were not articulated as the source of the conflict. They cited the examples of Chad and Ethiopia. [5] They acknowledged that some conflicts have been fueled by purely non-resource driven motives resulted. This is true with the cases of Angola, Afghanistan and Sudan. They, however, conceded to the fact that in the conflicts in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) resources were one of the stimulants among other elements. They tried to strike a balance by postulating that the end of the Cold War culminated in the proliferation of arms, and ineffective post conflict demilitarization, demobilization, and reintegration of ex-combatants which culminated in an outburst of wary and distressed combatants resulting several coup d’etat putsch attempts. While one may agree with the grievance theory, the million dollar question is what are people aggrieved about as to resort to conflicts, destruction of property, murder and assassinations? Is it about Governance? Is it distribution of resources? The answer is definitely far from the propositions of the aforementioned scholars. Because some countries have resource crisis and mismanagement, repressive regimes, and poor governance, but know no conflict. This therefore suggests that there is yet an unknown cause of conflict, and this cause is probably one that cuts across all conflicts. The present paper contemplates that inefficacies in the mechanisms for resolving these conflicts could be the brain-child behind the cyclical resurgence of conflicts in states previously hit by territorial civil wars. William Reno on his part contends that internal warfare is motivated by economic considerations especially with regard to the intensification of transitional commerce. He argues that there is a relationship between corruption and politics. According to Reno, conflict is bound to rise where a ruler makes life uncomfortable for his citizens by encouraging the search of his espionage as a means of escaping from squalid conditions. Reno in his postulations contemplates that the absence of good governance engenders politics as a cause of conflict. [8] William Zartman on his part contemplates that the increase in conflict is orchestrated by the collapse of state structure. [9] While one may agree with the collapse of state theory, the lotto question is: What drives the leaders to run the state aground? Keith Somerville, in his view tries to locate the source of conflict within the geopolitical map of Africa, which was bequeathed to it by the colonial powers. He contends that the colonial boundaries and state lines have led to the potpourri of people who hitherto had never before mixed as a group. [10] This articulation is paradoxical. While it means that even if the boundaries that existed in the pre-colonial time were maintained, there could still exist though at different levels, and with different target. [11] The diverse schools of thought examined above have attempted an investigation into the causes of conflict. They have posited economic underpinnings, lack of good governance, and disintegration of state institutions, religious and ethnic differences, corruption and colonial imprints. The opinions are not quite erroneous but fail to see ultimately that conflicts emanate because the global village appears to be in consonance with the fact that peacekeeping is the first port of resort for conflict resolution. Moreover, the fact that the problems postulated by the above authors have engendered conflicts in some areas and not in some despite the presence of similar factors suggest that there is more to conflict than has been articulated by contemporary research on the subject matter. The present paper contemplates that inefficacies in the dispute resolution machinery incubate further conflicts. This paper contemplates that if peacekeeping tools are tailored to empower stakeholders to a peace process, conflicts will be resolved before they escalate. On the contrast between causes of conflicts and causes of conflict resurgence, it should be noted that if conflicts are not prima facie mastered, it will be difficult to seamstress right solutions to them. As a result conflicts tend to hatch new and probably even more complicated dimensions to it.

Can the concept of security be defined should it be Essay

Can the concept of security be defined should it be - Essay Example In addition, while there is an agreement on the broadening agenda of security, incriminate expansion of the concept, hinders intellectual coherence of the concept and the security field. More importantly, the remaining importance of the question of war and violence under international anarchy cannot be ignored. This paper begins by questioning what security is and identifying its conceptual difficulties. This includes an examination of conflicting theories in Security Studies. Secondly, the narrow concept of security defined by traditional theory developed during the Cold War is discussed. Thirdly, proponents in favour of extending the concept of security in more detail are examined as well as the different dimensions of security challenging traditional concepts. Fourthly, limitations arising out of indiscriminate expansion of the concept are examined. Fifthly, a critical analysis of contemporary discourse which comes across as Eurocentric will be conducted. In this regard, the need for the strong and the weak in the same context is suggested. Finally, a conclusion is provided suggesting that relational thinking should be applied to security studies. Introduction Security studies dramatically developed in response to the development and spread of nuclear weapons and the corresponding conflicts between two superpowers during the Cold War influencing the growth of international relations (IR) theory. After World War (WW) II, the nuclear arms race between the US and the former Soviet Union produced myriad strategic concepts characterized by the balance of power, bipolar world, containment and deterrence comprising the major issues during the Cold War. Realist theory emerged dominating IR, displacing the earlier emphasis on international law and organisations. Rational problem solving emphasizes scientifically calculating interest, cost and the best alternatives. The central question for strategists during the Cold War was how states could states could use weapons of mass destruction as policy instruments, given the risk of nuclear exchange (Walt, 1991, p.214). Cold War security discourse therefore required a reflection of the immediate reality and as a result, historical and cultural contexts were largely ignored or relegated to low politics. For example strategic theory failed to satisfactorily explain theVietnam War as there was little attention to Vietnamese cultural context and instead relied on expectations that the Vietnamese adversary would conform to academic models (Kolodziej, 2005, p.23). With the collapse of the former Soviet Union and thus the end of the Cold War, low politics gained currency, commanding the adoption of a new concept of security by expanding on the traditional concept. Thus, in 1994 the UNDP advocated for a transition 'from nuclear security to human security' which included issues such as ‘hunger, disease and repression', and 'protection from sudden and hurtful disruptions'. In 1995, the International Commi ssion on Global Governance recommended that international security must be reconceptualised to direct attention ‘to the security of people and the planet.' In other words, difficulties for mankind generally or specific communities are now conceptualized as security risks. Changes in the past have resulted in changes in conditions and thus have corresponded with changes relative to the concept of securit

Interpretative Panel of Cypriot Bichrome III equestrian figurine, Article

Interpretative Panel of Cypriot Bichrome III equestrian figurine, Cypro-Archaic II, c. 600475 BCE - Article Example The artifacts had originally been excavated from Cyprus between 1955 and 1961 after the famous James Stewart’s expeditions to Cyprus.2 Despite being a professor of archeology at Sydney University, James Stewart received significant support for his archeological expeditions from the University of Melbourne. As a result, the expeditions were largely known as Melbourne Cyprus Expeditions and many artefacts such as Cypriot Bichrome III equestrian figurine were later allocated to the University of Melbourne. Historically, figurines of horses mounted with riders were particularly common in during the cyproarchaic II periods. Cyprus the origin of the figurines is a Mediterranean island situated south of Turkey, Easy of Greece, North of Egypt and west of Syria and Lebanon3. Equestrian figurines are small sculptures of horses and their riders. Generally, similar historic artifact of equestrian figurines like the one currently housed in the university of Melbourne art collection have been found in various sanctuaries and tombs belonging to stone age Cyprus societies4. It is widely believed that during the antiquities (particularly between 600 and 475 BCE), little figures were commonly left by worshippers at sanctuaries as part of the offerings of the ancient Cypriots to their gods and goddesses5. However, it was expensive to own a horse during the cypro achaic II period and it is only probable that the figurines like the cypriot Bichrome III equestrian sculpture may have been left by the wealthy and nobles who may have wanted to emphasize how important or wealthy they were. Sagona, A., ‘Horse and rider figurine’, in C. McAuliffe and P. Yule, Treasures: Highlights of the Cultural Collections of the University of Melbourne, The Miegunyah Press: Carlton, 2003, pp. 134–

Business Performance Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Performance - Assignment Example Barclays provides such a service for charities and fundraisers. The goal was therefore to convince Barclays of the publicity and prestige it would gain from helping us. - Find sponsors for the X-Box360, the V3 pink razor and the VIP tickets. Our targets were large electrical companies such as Comet, Currys and Dixons. We will have to bargain and negotiate with them as successfully as possible because obtaining the prizes for free would allow us to save the funds that we have raised. - Marketing the raffle as efficiently as possible in order to raise interest for our cause and seduce the potential participant with the prizes. However, we will need to be careful not to spend an important amount on marketing and not target a too important group. - Distributing the tickets to the target market i.e. the 1.500 students who compose the school. We will need to make the students aware of the cause we are defending to make the cost of a raffle ticket worth spending. Ali was the team leader elected by the members. Unfortunately, he did not show leadership as he did not establish any contingency plan, budget or strategy. He also failed to allocate tasks to other members. As a member he had to research and print advertising flyers. All the team members were asked to pay 20.00 for a total payment of 120.00 for 5000 flyers when the target market was composed of 1500 students. Ali has to work on his communication skills to reach a better understanding within the group and should really consider planning his actions as it resulted that he produced 3 times the flyers needed. Sukhdeep was charged to go negotiate the scheme with Barclays. He only went once to the bank and claimed that it was a success even if there was not written proof of the agreement. He often proposed marvellous ideas which could never be put into practice, he frequently arrived late at our meetings and was very aggressive when selling the tickets. I believe Sukhdeep should be more committed and professional in his work by showing that he can complete the tasks given to him. Also, he should really work on his sales skills. Umer was responsible of the administration work: making memo's to be sent out to all teachers with form classes as reminders, buy raffle ticket books, to set out the proposal that was to be presented to the bank manger and head teacher, which proved to be very important. (sorry but you did not comment on Umer so please could you complete this part as I don't have any information) Tauseef was tasked to create and produce the flyers and posters. Though very optimistic, Tauseef's ideas were not very creative and he was not able to complete his task within a reasonable budget.

A Problem in My Life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

A Problem in My Life - Essay Example The initial stages of work had been challenging yet fulfilling until one of the members started taking unusual control of the group by seemingly imposing uneven delegation of assignments claiming that the majority of the pupils requested more of his service than those of others in our roster. I had thought all along that my own performance was capable of radiating motivation in such a way as to get everyone in the team to operate with a sense of interdependence. Then I figured that some people desired the same amount of recognition I was receiving so that the spirit of teamwork would be best acknowledged. Another cause that might have led to indifference and the urge to manipulate was my failure to interact properly, being accustomed to the individualistic approach toward personal growth at the expense of quality relations. Apparently, I occurred to have overlooked the equivalent significance of the contributions made by the rest of the members. By such failure to promote the welfare of others especially their worth in the collective effort, some had narrowed to thinking that I was conceited.

Case study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 4

Case Study Example The total numbers of the reserves that it can recover are estimated to be at three hundred and seven million tons of oil and the natural gas was estimates are approximately four hundred and eight five billions cubic meters (Exxon Neftegas Limited). The execution and development of this project have been motivated with the application and use of advance construction methods and technologies. Moreover, the application of such technologies and construction methods have led to reduced cost of operation for the general project development and as well led to minimized negative environmental impacts. Additionally, the project has managed to overcome most of its technical and environmental challenges; thus, meeting its set goals and objectives through application of the newly introduced technologies. Furthermore, the committed management team has successful transformed the project’s goals and objective into the success of the project through their committed submission to the project. However, the project has been faced with numerous challenges including complex regulatory rules, limited infrastructure, difficult logistics, and unskilled labor. Nonetheless, the management proper application of its efficient plans especially alon g the new technologies has led to successful completion of the project’s first phase (Exxon Neftegas Limited). The Sakhalin project is one of the largest foreign direct investments that are found in Russia. It had the objective of fulfilling the ever-growing energy demands in Russia and other parts of the world. The project managed to fulfill this objective or its aim since it produces and supply energy for both domestic consumption in Russia and exporting some of its energy to northeast Asia. Moreover, it helped Russia to consolidate its strategic position regarding the supply of energy in other parts of the world. In other words, the project made Russia to be a world energy supplier and be

Strategic management accounting Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Strategic management accounting - Assignment Example Furthermore, to increase the range of profitability, to ensure the resources, which are available, are used in the most required and desired way for the purpose of attaining and maintaining the short term and long term goals of the organisation, budgets are mostly used with this intention as well. After this part, a more critical discussion will be done on the traditional concept of standard costing. The uses and purposes of standard costing would be highlighted and discussed in the most appropriate way. The main purpose of standard costing is to provide a planned unit cost of a product. On the other hand, the main uses of standard costing are to provide a standard to measure the performance measurement, stock valuation, control and the establishment of selling price of different products. Standard cost is self-assumed and planned cost given to a product for the purpose of comparing it with the actual cost and cost price of the product. This actual and planned comparison of the cost and price is greatly required and used by the management. There are different uses offered and given by this comparison. The original and true efficiency and effectiveness of the organisations can easily be compared with the given set of the standard cost. This comparison would clearly highlight whether the required level of organisational short term and long term goals and objectives are achieved or the management has failed to achieve the required level of organisational objectives in the most required way and most required manner. There are different types of budgets: Zero based budgeting and activity based budgeting. Zero based budgeting is totally a new approach towards the understanding of the concept of budgeting. Traditionally, budgeting is made by adding some additional percentage to the previous year budgeting and implementing it in this added budget in the current year. But, this is not done as far as zero based budgeting is concerned. Here, the activity of budgeting gets started from scratch. Additionally, the budget maker is required to give and produce a statement authenticating the true and valid reasons and causes to justify any additions or to justify any reductions in the zero based budgeting. Also, it is very much expected of the budget manager to prioritise the entire set of activities by also providing and giving a reasonable explanation for prioritising any set of activities. On the other hand, activity based budgeting provides an additional source that can be used for the purpose of doing the activity of budgeting. In this budgeting, first certain targets are determined and highlighted. After determining the certain targets, then activities are highlighted and determined for the purpose of attaining and meeting those targets with the help of these activities. Afterwards, only those available and required resources are used that help and ensure the attainment of these targets. The activity based budgeting facilitates the identification of such opportunities that help to reduce cost and eliminate those factors that are wasteful. Activity based budgeting highlights and helps management to constantly pursue the areas that have improvements. Budget is defined as ‘a quantitative statement for a defined period of time,